the holy alliance between cartography, technology and graphic design

never forget that the paper map is a representation of what was in the retinal representation of the man who made the map. got it?

push the question back and you find an infinite regress, an infinite series of maps!😁

the map above is by the venetian monk Fra Mauro (1450 ad), one of the greatest memorials of medieval cartography.

have you ever designed a map? you'll confront MANY PROBLEMS, as early geogrephers encountered.

Here are five points of modern cartography (the science of making maps)

1- map editing: set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as regions or political boundaries.

2- map projection: now try to represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media (this is called geodesics, and projective geometries)

3- map generalization: eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose; reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped.

4- map design: orchestrate all these elements to best convey the map's message to your audience.

Piris Reis map of the Mediterranean basin (17th century).

see that in Reis' map there are no toponyms (regions, political divides). you get PURE TOPOGRAPHY (topos and rivers). this map was geared to an audience interested in topography.
 

Henricus Hondius' World Map (1630)

exploration changed the image of the world. methods of circulating projection and projecting them on a flat surface with a minimum of distortion have been devised, notably by Gerard Merchator. 

see that you get the globe divided into two: equator, circumnavigation, etc. pretty good modern globe map!

Ptolemy's map may look weird but it is not! 

Ptolemy was aware that he knew about only a quarter of the globe, and an erroneous extension of china southward suggests his sources did not reach all the way to the pacific ocean.

freedom of the press!

this french hand color engraving features presses in the background and a mob of people taking sheets and publicly proclaiming their contents. 

print not only spreads information but it gives it authority. 

the first newspapers! (circa 17th century)

 

Augsburg, Germany (1609) 

Considered the first newspaper to establish the conventions of the medium

 

The London Gazette (1687)

Publick Occurences (1690), American Colonies 

What's the importance of the press in the development of graphic design?

* The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century marked the beginning of mass communication. This allowed for the widespread distribution of books, newspapers, and posters, creating a demand for structured layouts, typography, and visual hierarchy—key elements of graphic design. 

* (Typographic development) The press facilitated the creation and refinement of different typefaces. Over time, designers experimented with fonts, leading to the development of serif, sans-serif, and decorative typefaces used in modern design. 

* (Growth of Advertising and Branding) Newspapers and magazines became major platforms for advertising, requiring visually appealing layouts and branding elements. This led to innovations in layout design, illustration, and color theory.

The public sphere is a virtual arena where opinion is created.

music as a vehicle for "printing" culture

 

Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro (1806-09)

we love music, don't we? 

this is a kind of EARLY spotify.

to play music during the 16th -18th centuries you need a music sheet. who prints it? PRINT HOUSES. many middle income houses had a piano, and someone in the family took piano classes to, at least, play a few pieces and entertain. the family would gather on weekends with friends to listen and sing together.

that's why music is a vehicle for printing culture.

how do you foster beliefs in society? expose people to (mark) representations

this 1521 engraving shows Reuchlin and Luther (1st and 3rd from left) as the patrons of liberty facing their various enemies.

it feels so far as if we're talking about the past. not so. what's the difference between the engraving above, and this? 

or this?

Walter Cronkite, presumably the first all-powerful anchor in america's tv history

you have to understand the ritual during Conkrite's tenure when more than 9 out of every 10 homes had at least one television set, but viewers had a few shannel choices (and had to watch programs live), leading to communal dinner hour news viewing! no wonder NBC paid Barbara Walters $1M in the 1970 to host the news.

a very interesting story regarding the social importance of pamphlets here.

the NEW anatomy & physiology of Andrea Vesalius (De Humani corporis fabrica, 1543)

the aesthetic of Vesalius' De Humani Corporis* casts renaissance Humanism in a sort of macabre light. The idea of memento moris, or the sealed fate. To display his knowledge of human anatomy, Vesalius posed his skeletons, partially flayed bodies and flayed bodies in graceful versions of living poses.

De Humani Corporis is based on his Paduan lectures, during which he deviated from common practice by dissecting a corpse to illustrate what he was discussing. here we see a careful examination of the organs and the complete structure of the human body.

the honor of these skillful & detailed studies goes to Jan van Calcar. De Humani Corporis would not have been possible without the many advances made during the Renaissance, including both the artistic and technical development of printing.

 

_________
*Fabrica rectified some of Galen's worst errors, including the notion that the great blood vessels originated from the liver. Even with his improvements, however, Vesalius clung to some of Galen's errors, such as the idea that there was a different type of blood flowing through veins than arteries. It was not until William Harvey's work on the circulation of the blood that this misconception of Galen would be rectified in Europe.

what's the mystery behind "secretary hand"?

high middle ages, england. a beauty, isn't it? 

as writing gets complicated and diverse, one needs to make it faster and less protocolar. the hand wins! but the hand needs training. this is the beginning of calligraphy. we talked about this briefly in oir last class. here are some examples:

insular miniscule,

chancery hand,

secretary, ancient

secretary hand happens almost "by itself," out of the need for a hand that was fast, more legible and universally recognizable than the older book hands of the High Middle Ages. 

& what was the rush?

BUSINESS! and a more dependant personal correspondence, in cities, chanceries and courts.

why did humanism flourish? it's about celebration, not gloom

If people who live agreeably are Epicureans, none are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it's names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy: Christ, for in Greek epikouros means "helper." Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life. On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure.- Desiderius Erasmus.

book = enlightenment

What is important about this period from 1600-1800 is the rise of nationalism, rationalism and scientific empiricism. 

Styles pass from the flamboyance of the Baroque to the Rococo to Neoclassicism. 

Book trade grew dramatically serving as a powerful instrument to Enlightenment. 

Book design played a role in the creation of what is known as the public sphere, a virtual space made through the exchange of ideas and information. 

Communities of belief were built on shared reading and thought rather than a common location. New sheets circulated with an air of relevance and urgency and the design of these media helped define what was current and important. In fact the public sphere in the 17th and 18th centuries depended on the availability of printed matter.

Hobbes' Leviathan (1600's).

How scientific disciplines "branch" (why it matters to the history of design)

 

Ptolemaic model of the universe (the planets and sun move around the earth)

Science is a form of design. Why? Any science form has a writing form, a nomenclature. And the symbols matter for their clarity and maneuverability.

For example, Leibniz symbols for equal sign  ( =) was this:  Π

Greeks did not have a symbol for zero,

 (see omicron at the bottom right)

Check this Wikipedia entry,  

Astrology and astronomy were archaically treated together (Latin: astrologia), but gradually distinguished through the Late Middle Ages, into the Age of Reason.

This was precisely my point yesterday. 

Using the term "archaically," Wikipedia looks at the issue from the future of the "branching" of astrology and astronomy. This is important. 

But we excuse Wikipedia for this faux pas. 

My point is that up to the late middle ages, the study of celestial bodies was ONE DISCIPLINE, not two. 

And if you happen to be alive in 1023, 1223, 1323, or even 1523, and you are a scientist studying astronomy, you are not "ignorant" of anything that doesn't belong in YOUR EPOCH, just as much as we, in 2023, are cannot be ignorant of the science in 2223, two hundred years into our future.

right? 

Take Ptolemy and his geocentric model of the universe. If you are a young person in Alexandria (today, Egypt) in 123 AD, and you're a student of Ptolemy, you have a top world scientist as a teacher! 

And you'd be thrilled to use his model to explain the universe!

Yet, looking at Ptolemy's geocentric model from 2023 looks archaic. 

This is our present model.

We always live inside epochs. You and I are contemporaneous to this epoch. Many of the things we take for granted a hundred years from now will simply fade away. I'm talking about knowledge in general.

That's the right approach to history. 

The same happens with the pair alchemy/chemistry. Even Sir Isaac Newton, the most influential physicist of his time and one of the most important scientists in the history of science, believed in alchemy.

If you were a brilliant physics student in the 17th century, you would give anything to study with Newton. 

No matter how "right" you are in your epoch, you are never quite right in the future of that epoch. 

That's why I'm a skeptic. 

Now back to the history of graphic design. I want you to look at history and everything you see in it with the awe of someone who has internalized this: 

No matter how much we think we know, we only know within the boundaries of our time. 

bembo part 2, (a deeper analysis that concerns you)

So, recapitulating... "bembo" refers to Griffo's cuts for Manutius, it appears in 1496. Petri Bembi de Aetna Angelum Chabrielem liber, the first use of italics (?) so, is Griffo responsible for the first italics? It seems so.

Bembo is,

1- kind of gothic,
2- kind of cursive, 
3- influenced by the early 15th century miniscule by Niccolo de Niccoli known as cancelleresca corsiva  "chancery hand." the trick is that the pen is held at a fortyfive degree angle for speed. the corsiva is akin to Humanist calligraphy. That is to say, the propagation of letters, knowledge in the form of literature.

a recent development in italics is the Zapfino by Herman Zapf.

What the type above lacks is what this one (by Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi) has.

what am i talking about? 

you cannot expect that court-writing will not become more and more obscure as the practice gets stereotyped, until it was banned altogether in 1731. 

Why? 

it had become esoteric. it had stopped being functional. 

to come back to muy point. what Zapfino lacks is something like this:

it's called character!

one needs to get into the geist of their epoch. each epoch has a type. you designers use types to translate your epoch!

Why is incunabula printing far superior to whatever came later?

Phisicorum, circa 1485

1. Handcrafted Attention to Detail 

Early printers were trained as scribes and illuminators, bringing their meticulous standards to the press. Manuscripts often featured illuminated initials, gold leaf, and intricate borders with detailed artwork. Miniatures (small paintings) were used to illustrate key scenes, especially in religious and aristocratic works. 

2. High-Quality Paper and Ink! 

Incunabula were printed on rag-based paper, which was more durable and smoother than the later wood-pulp paper. Parchment & Vellum: High-end manuscripts were written on vellum (prepared calfskin) or parchment (sheepskin or goatskin), which were durable, smooth, and long-lasting. Rag-based Paper: In the later Middle Ages, high-quality rag paper was introduced, offering a smooth writing surface. The ink used was oil-based, adhering well to the page and providing deep, rich blacks. 

3. Carefully Designed Typefaces

All this means calligraphic precision! Scribes were trained to write with uniformity, following strict rules about letter formation, spacing, and proportions. Humanist script ensured readability and elegance. Letters were individually formed, avoiding ink smudging or uneven strokes. 

Typefaces in the Incunabula period were directly modeled after calligraphy, carefully crafted and cast in metal. Later mass production led to worn-out type molds, reducing precision and clarity. 

4. Slow and Careful Printing Process

Early printers used wooden hand presses, which applied uniform pressure. They inked the type carefully and ensured precise impressions, avoiding over-inking or smudging. 

5. Lack of Commercial Pressures

Since printing was still a craft, printers focused on artistry rather than speed. Later, as demand grew, cost-cutting measures led to lower-quality materials and faster, less precise production. 

6. Post-Printing Aesthetic Enhancements

Many incunabula were hand-rubricated and illuminated, adding an artisanal quality absent in later mass-printed books. Rubrication and Annotation Important sections were marked in red ink (rubrication) for emphasis. Margins were often used for glosses, commentaries, and scholia. Printers treated incunabula as an extension of manuscript culture, ensuring high-quality aesthetics. 

Your turn #3

Chromolithographs above, by David Ferland, circa 1850

We discussed the founders of new typefaces, Gutenberg, Jenson, Griffo, Manutius & Bembo. 

We looked at some essential INCUNABULA: Gutenberg's Bible, Catholicon, The Mainz Selter, Plantin's Biblia Polyglotta, Erhardt Ratdolt, Tyndale's Bible, Geoffroy Tory,  The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili... 

Also, the reasons for the shift from Gothic to Roman.

Pick your favorite!